Doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(07)60820-4

Repetitive strain injury
Maurits van Tulder, Antti Malmivaara, Bart Koes Repetitive strain injury remains a controversial topic. The term repetitive strain injury includes specifi c disorders such Lancet 2007; 369: 1815–22
as carpal tunnel syndrome, cubital tunnel syndrome, Guyon canal syndrome, lateral epicondylitis, and tendonitis of Institute for Research in
the wrist or hand. The diagnosis is usually made on the basis of history and clinical examination. Large high-quality Extramural Medicine, VU
studies using newer imaging techniques, such as MRI and ultrasonography are few. Consequently, the role of such University Medical Centre
(Prof M van Tulder PhD) and
imaging in diagnosis of upper limb disorders remains unclear. In many cases, no specifi c diagnosis can be established Institute of Health Sciences,
and complaints are labelled as non-specifi c. Little is known about the eff ectiveness of treatment options for upper limb Faculty of Earth & Life Sciences,
disorders. Strong evidence for any intervention is scarce and the eff ect, if any, is mainly short-term pain relief. Exercise VU University, Amsterdam,
is benefi cial for non-specifi c upper limb disorders. Immobilising hand braces and open carpal tunnel surgery release Netherlands (Prof M van Tulder);
Finnish Offi
ce for Health Care
are benefi cial for carpal tunnel syndrome, and topical and oral non-steroidal anti-infl ammatory drugs, and corticosteroid Technology Assessment,
injections are helpful for lateral epicondylitis. Exercise is probably benefi cial for neck pain, as are corticosteroid Helsinki, Finland
injections and exercise for shoulder pain. Although upper limb disorders occur frequently in the working population, (A Malmivaara MD); and
most trials have not exclusively included a working population or assessed eff ects on work-related outcomes. Further Deptartment of General
Practice, Erasmus MC,
high-quality trials should aim to include suffi
cient sample sizes, working populations, and work-related outcomes.
University Medical Centre
Rotterdam, Rotterdam, the
Repetitive strain injury is not one diagnosis, but is an example, high rates of this disorder have been reported in Netherlands (Prof B Koes PhD)
umbrella term for disorders that develop as a result of men employed in industries manufacturing textiles, Correspondence to:
repetitive movements, awkward postures, sustained force,
footwear, food, and beverages. High rates were also seen in Prof Maurits van Tulder, Institute and other risk factors.1 Epidemiological studies have women working in manufacturing of basic metal, food Medicine, VU University Medical shown that psychosocial workplace factors such as low and beverages, textiles, clothing, and footwear.8,34 In the Centre, 1081 BT, Amsterdam, deci sion latitude (employees having little control over Netherlands, the professions with highest risk of repetitive Netherlands their working practices or conditions), psychological strain injury include tailors, dressmakers, construction mw.vantulder@vumc.nl
distress, mono tonous work, and poor relationships within
workers, secretaries, typists, people who use visual display the workplace are also associated with symptoms of units, and those who load, unload, or pack goods.6 The repetitive strain injury.2 Although this disorder is common economic burden of repetitive strain injury is large, in people who work, and occupation-related factors are especially because of the high costs associated with absence associated with an increased risk of its development, from work. The mean costs of a worker’s compensation factors not related to work can also play a part, and it is claim for this disorder range from $5000 to $8000 and total common in the general population. The term repetitive $6·5 billion every year in the USA.35 Several factors that strain injury is controversial and other descriptive terms increase the risk of repetitive strain injury have been for the symptoms have been suggested, such as cumulative ed, and can be categorised into physical, trauma disorders, occupational cervicobrachial disorders, psychosocial, and individual risk factors.36 occupational overuse syndrome, upper extremity Ample evidence exists for the association between musculoskeletal disorders, upper limb dis orders, and physical risk factors such as repetitive movements, poor posture, and inadequate strength and the occurrence of repetitive strain injury. The eff ects of work-related and Epidemiology
psychosocial factors are not as clear as those of physical Repetitive strain injury arises frequently in adults of factors, although high workload, stress, and physical or working age, with many people reporting strains of the hands, wrists, arms, shoulders, or neck. Repetitive strain injury complaints are common in the general population Search strategy and selection criteria
and are a frequent reason for visiting the general We searched Pubmed, Embase and the Cochrane Library from the dates that these practitioner.9 Several countries report a prevalence of 5–10% databases begin up to December, 2005, for studies on pathophysiology, epidemiology, for non-specifi c complaints of strain that interferes with prognosis, diagnosis, and treatment of repetitive strain injury. Detailed search strategies for day-to-day activities,10–13 but rates could be as high as diagnostic and therapeutic studies are available from the corresponding author. Studies 22–40% in specifi c working populations.14–30 A large UK about pathophysiology, epidemiology and prognosis were identifi ed by use of the MESH study (9696 people) reported frequencies of lateral terms or free text words: “pathophysiology”, “epidemiology”, “incidence”, “prevalence”, epicondylitis (1·3% in men and 1·1% in women), de “prognosis”, and “prognostic factors”. Clinical Evidence (issue 14, December, 2005) was Quervain’s disease (0·5% in men and 1·3% in women), screened for additional systematic reviews and subsequent trials.5–8 No additional studies and tenosynovitis of the hand or wrist (1·1% in men and were identifi ed in the Cochrane controlled trials register. We included studies of adults 2·2% in women).31 Other studies have reported prevalence diagnosed with any type of specifi c or non-specifi c repetitive strain injury, work-related or rates of carpal tunnel syndrome of 7–14·5%.16,25,32,33 not. We excluded studies on whiplash. No language restrictions were used in the search, but Repetitive strain injury is most common in specifi c we were able to read and include only English, Dutch, Finnish, German, and French papers.
professions and industrial settings. In Australia, for www.thelancet.com Vol 369 May 26, 2007
psychological demands, low job security, and little support for diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome, which supports from colleagues might be important.2,14,36,37 The eff ect of their widespread use.45,46 Electrodiagnostic tests such as individual factors is less clear, although a review38 of nerve conduction studies or electromyographs might also 56 studies noted that repetitive strain injury is reported be useful if clinical diagnosis is not clear, although their more frequently in women than in men. This fi nding was diagnostic accuracy has not yet been proven in high-quality supported by three subsequent studies.14,37,39,40 The relative importance of physical, psychosocial, and individual risk The American College of Rheumatology has published factors is unknown and strong conclusions from criteria for imaging choices in chronic epicondylitis.49 They epidemiological studies are hampered by heterogeneous advise that MRI can provide important diagnostic popu lations, exposures, and outcomes, and methodological information for assessment of lateral epicondylitis, but that ultrasonography is of little diagnostic value. However, a systematic review concluded50 that the assessment of Pathophysiology
MRI fi ndings in epicondylitis was questionable because Several hypotheses for the pathophysiology of repetitive the diagnostic studies included were of low quality. strain injury exist, but none has been strongly supported Additionally, MRI is associated with high costs, and these by scientifi c evidence. Despite initial distal presentation, images are unlikely to aff ect treatment decisions or this disorder seems to be a diff use neuromuscular illness.41 Mechanical (elastic deformation of connective tissue due to increased pressure within muscles) and physiological repetitive strain injury. These systems diff ered in the (electrochemical and metabolic imbalances) reactions disorders they included, the names given to the disorders, might cause damage to muscle tissue and lead to com- and the criteria used to describe the disorders.52 Palmer plaints of strain. Continuous contraction of muscles from and colleagues53 summarised three new approaches to long-term static load with insuffi cient breaks could result classifi cation of repetitive strain injury (table 1), which in reduced local blood circulation and muscle fatigue. could be helpful for diagnosis.
Consequently, pain sensors in the muscles could become All proposed classifi cations categorise repetitive strain hypersensitive, leading to a pain response at low levels of injury into specifi c and non-specifi c disorders. Specifi c stimulation. Other hypotheses suggest frequent co-con- disorders can have symptoms mainly of pain, stiff ness, tractions in muscles or changes in proprioception as the tenderness, swelling, or paraesthesia in the neck, shoulder, source of injury.6,42 elbow, hand and wrist, or carpal tunnel.54 Non-specifi c Some researchers have suggested that overuse of tendons repetitive strain is diagnosed by exclusion of specifi c by repetitive loading causes repetitive strain injury.43 Four diagnoses or pathologies. A structured examination has pathological mechanisms have been suggested for been developed for diagnosis and classifi cation of repetitive tendonitis: decreased elasticity of the tendon; friction strain injuries, on the basis of one of the classifi cation between tendon and tendon sheath; tendon fatigue; and systems in table 1.4 This examination had reasonable mechanically-induced local temperature increase.6 Most reliability in both a hospital setting and a community patients with true infl ammatory tendonopathies have setting.53,55 At present, the usefulness of the other long-lasting symptoms of degeneration of collagen fi bre classifi cation systems is not known.
structure.43 The function of peripheral nerves can be disrupted by Treatment
mechanical overload. In carpal tunnel syndrome, for Non-specifi c work-related repetitive strain
example, studies showed that specifi c forearm, wrist, and Exercise therapy is a useful treatment for patients with
fi nger postures, moderate hand loads, and external non-specifi c work-related repetitive strain presenting to
pressure on the palm can increase carpal tunnel pressure primary care physicians or physiotherapists. Exercise
(at least temporarily) to levels at which nerve health is seems to provide symptom relief and improve activities of
threatened.44 Pressure in the surrounding tissue, reduced daily living.56–63 Manual therapy, such as osteopathy or
elasticity, vibrations, and direct compression of the nerves chiropractic could be useful in some patients.56,64 If one
could reduce nerve conduction.
kind of therapy does not reduce symptoms, multi-disciplinary rehabilitation programmes are recom mended, Diagnosis
although no strong evidence is available for such No gold-standard tests for repetitive strain injury exist. In treatments.56,57,65,66 Other treatment options are available for most cases, diagnosis is made on the basis of history and non-specifi physical examination, including assessment of range of behavioural therapy,56 massage, 58,62,63,67 multi motion of joints, hypermobility, muscle tenderness, pain, rehabilitation,68 energised splint (gives off high-voltage strength, and imbalance between right and left limbs.41 pulses),69 and ergonomic keyboards,60,70,71 but whether or Some clinical tests are used for specifi c disorders. For not these interventions are eff ective is still unclear. Ability
example, Phalen’s test, Tinel’s test, and measurement of to return to work and reduction of sick leave are important
nerve conduction velocity are highly sensitive and specifi c outcomes for the patient. However, in three studies of
www.thelancet.com Vol 369 May 26, 2007
Harrington4
Sluiter3
Helliwell52
Radiating neck complaints: at least intermittent pain or stiff ness in the neck and pain or paraesthesia in one or more upper extremity regions, associated with head movements for more than 4 of the past 7 days and pain in upper extremity on active or passive cervical rotation Rotator cuff tendonitis: history of pain in the deltoid Rotator cuff syndrome: at least intermittent pain in the shoulder region Tendonitis: limitation of abduction of the region and pain on resisted active movement without paraesthesia, which is worsened by active elevation of the upper shoulder, painful arc on abduction of the arm for more than 4 of the past 7 days and at least one other positive shoulder, shoulder pain, sleep disturbance rotation—infraspinatus; internal rotation—subscapularis) test: (a) pain on resisted shoulder abduction, external rotation, or internal Bicipital tendonitis: history of anterior shoulder pain and rotation; (b) resisted elbow fl exion; or (c) painful arc pain on resisted active fl exion or supination of the forearmCapsulitis: history of pain in the deltoid area and equal restriction of active and passive glenohumeral movement with capsular pattern (external rotation>abduction>internal rotation) Lateral epicondylitis: epicondylar pain and epicondylar Lateral or medial epicondylitis: at least intermittent, activity dependent Lateral epicondylitis: pain or tenderness or tenderness and pain on resisted extension of the wrist pain localised around the lateral or medial epicondyle for more than 4 of pain on loading relevant muscle at lateral Medial epicondylitis: epicondylar pain and epicondylar the past 7 days and local pain on resisted wrist extension (lateral) or wrist epicondyle tenderness and pain on resisted fl exion of the wrist fl exion (medial)Cubital tunnel syndrome: at least intermittent paraesthesia in the 4th and 5th digit, or both, or the ulnar border of the forearm, wrist, or hand for more than 4 of the past 7 days and a positive combined pressure and fl exion testRadial tunnel syndrome: pain in the lateral elbow region or forearm muscle mass of wrist extensors/supinator or weakness on extending the wrist and fi ngers for more than 4 of the past 7 days and tenderness in supinator region on palpation over the radial nerve 4–7 cm distal to the lateral epicondyle and at least one other positive test: (a) resisted forearm supination; or (b) resisted middle fi nger extension De Quervain’s disease: pain over the radial styloid and De Quervain’s tenosynovitis: intermittent pain or tenderness localised tender swelling of the extensor compartment and either over the radial side of the wrist, which may radiate proximally to the pain reproduced by resisted thumb extension or positive forearm or distally to the thumb for more than 4 of the past 7 days and at triggering, locking, or nodule on tendon Finkelstein test least one other positive test: (a) Finkelstein’s test; (b) resisted thumb located in fi nger fl exor or extensor tendon, Tenosynovitis: pain on movement localised to the extension; or (c) resisted thumb abduction or thumb fl exor, extensor, or abductor tendon sheaths of the wrist and reproduction of pain by Peritendonitis or tenosynovitis: intermittent pain or ache in the ventral or tendon dorsal forearm or wrist region for more than 4 of the past 7 days and provocation of symptoms during resisted movement of the muscles under the symptom area and reproduction of pain during palpation of the aff ected tendons or palpable crepitus under symptom area or visible swelling of dorsum wrist or forearmGuyon’s canal syndrome: intermittent paraesthesia in the palmar ulnar nerve distribution of the hand, distal to the wrist or pain in the ulnar innervated area of the hand, which may radiate to the forearm for more than 4 of the past 7 days and at least one other positive test: (a) weakness or atrophy in the ulnar innervated intrinsic hand muscles; (b) Tinel’s sign; (c) reversed Phalen test; or (d) pressure test over the Guyon’s canal Carpal tunnel syndrome: pain or paraesthesia or sensory Carpal tunnel syndrome: intermittent paraesthesia or pain in at least two loss in the median nerve distribution and other positive of the fi rst three digits, which might also be present at night (producing test: (a) Tinel’s test; (b) Phalen’s test; (c) nocturnal pain in the palm, wrist, or radiation proximal to the wrist) for more than pain at night, paraesthesia in a peripheral exacerbation of symptoms; (d) motor loss with wasting 4 of the past 7 days and at least one other positive test: (a) fl exion of abductor pollicis brevis; or (e) abnormal nerve compression test (b) carpal compression test (c) Tinel’s sign; (d) Phalen’s related to a peripheral nerve at the wrist sign; (e) 2 point discrimination test; or (f) resisted thumb abduction or motor loss with wasting of abductor pollicis brevis Non-specifi c Non-specifi c diff use forearm pain: pain in the forearm in Non-specifi c upper extremity musculoskeletal disorders: Diagnosis by the absence of a specifi c diagnosis (sometimes includes: loss of function, weakness, cramp, muscle tenderness, allodynia, or slowing of fi ne movements) Table 1: Suggested classifi cations for RSI2
these outcomes, no signifi cant diff erences were seen and local corticosteroid injections provide short-term pain between treatments, so no specifi c treatment strategy can relief (up to 12 weeks).73,74 Many other non-surgical be recommended to improve duration of sick leave.59,67,72 treatment options could provide pain relief. Carpal bone mobilisation, 7-weeks of ultrasound treatment, and yoga Carpal tunnel syndrome
have shown some benefi t, but small trials only were Most patients with carpal tunnel syndrome are treated done.73,75,76 Diuretic drugs, non-steroidal anti-infl ammatory with non-surgical interventions (table 2). A hand brace drugs (NSAIDs), vitamin B6, magnet therapy, laser improves symptoms, and 2-week oral steroid treatment acupuncture, use of ergonomic keyboards, exercise, and www.thelancet.com Vol 369 May 26, 2007
Surgical treatment relieves symptoms better than splint- Intervention
ing.94 However, two small trials only have compared surgery of trials
with splinting in patients with severe carpal tunnel symp- Local corticosteroid injections (short-term) toms. Whether this result applies to patients with mild symptoms is unknown. Two studies comparing surgery with steroid injections showed confl icting results.95,96 None Endoscopic carpal tunnel release versus open carpal tunnel release 12 of these studies included exclusively a working population.
Cubital tunnel syndrome
Local corticosteroid injections (long-term) Treatment of cubital tunnel syndrome is generally conser- vative for at least 6 months.97 Such treatment aims for return to functional strength and mobility of the aff ected arm, and consists of manual therapy, splinting, stretching exercises, and pain management. Surgery might be neces- sary if conservative therapies fail, although optimum surgi cal management is controversial. Of the surgical inter- ventions, medial epicondylectomy provides the best symp- tom relief for patients with mild symptoms, and anterior Internal neurolysis in conjunction with open carpal tunnel release subcutaneous transposition provides the least relief.98 Wrist splints after carpal tunnel release surgery Submuscular transposition is most eff ective for patients with moderate symptoms. For patients with severe cubital Table 2: Common interventions for carpal tunnel syndrome.5
tunnel syndrome, the best treatment option is unknown.98 None of these studies included exclusively a working Intervention
of trials
Topical non-steroidal anti-infl ammatory drugs (short-term) Lateral epicondylitis (tennis elbow)
Oral non-steroidal anti-infl ammatory drugs (short-term) Most patients with lateral epicondylitis are treated conservatively in primary care (table 3). Oral and topical NSAIDs provide short-term pain relief in patients with this disorder.99 Only one trial evaluating these drugs included Percutaneous tenotomy or formal open release reduction of sick leave as an outcome and noted no benefi t over placebo.100 Corticosteroid injections are eff ective for Non-steroidal anti-infl ammatory drugs (long-term) short-term (6 weeks or less) pain relief, increase of grip strength, and overall improvement, but do not provide intermediate or long-term eff ects.101 Ultrasound can also reduce symptoms.102 Other treatment options for lateral Table 3: Common interventions for lateral epicondylitis6
epicondylitis are acupuncture (either needle or laser), orthotic devices, lasertherapy, electrotherapy, exercises, chiropractic care have not yet shown symptomatic benefi t and mobilisation techniques, but the eff ectiveness of these when in controlled trials.73,75,76 No trials about carpal tunnel therapies is unknown.103,104 Shockwave therapy is not useful syndrome have included exclusively a working population for lateral epicondylitis.102,105 Surgery is also a treatment option in patients with severe symptoms. Percutaneous Endoscopic and open carpal tunnel release are surgical tenotomy for lateral epicondylitis seems somewhat better treatment options that can improve symptom relief in than open tenotomy for improvement of disability and patients with severe electromyograph-confi rmed carpal decreasing recovery time and return-to-work.106,107 None of tunnel syndrome.77–91 No alternative to standard open carpal the studies exclusively included a working population.
tunnel release (a new modifi ed incision; epineurotomy;
internal neurolysis [epineurotomy then division of the Neck pain
nerve resulting in nerve decompression]; tenosynovectomy
Patients with neck pain are usually treated in primary care [excision or resection of a tendon sheath]; Knifelight with non-surgical interventions (table 4). Exercise therapy instrument [a knife with integrated light source]) seems to has some short-term benefi t on pain and function for off er better relief from symptoms in either the short-term patients with neck pain.108–115 Seven trials of exercise for or the long-term.92 Neural surgery (neurolysis or neck pain have included exclusively a working population. epineurotomy) could even be harmful for patients with No type of exercise (eg, strengthening, stretching, carpal tunnel syndrome.93 Complications are frequent with surgery, but no severe complications resulting in permanent recommended over others. Diff erences in eff ect, if any, damage or serious impairments have been described.91,92 across types of exercise are small. Manipulation and www.thelancet.com Vol 369 May 26, 2007
Intervention
Intervention
of trials
of trials
Intra-articular corticosteroid injections Physiotherapy (manual treatment, exercise) Arthroscopic laser subacromial decompression Manipulation under anaesthesia plus intra-articular injection in Intra-articular non-steroidal anti-infl ammatory drugs Multidisciplinary biopsychosocial rehabilitation Oral non-steroidal anti-infl ammatory drugs Table 4: Common interventions for neck pain.7
Topical non-steroidal anti-infl ammatory drugs mobilisation are not useful on their own for mechanical neck disorders with or without headache.116 However, Table 5: Common interventions for shoulder pain8
mobilisations or manipulations combined with exercises might be useful for pain reduction, improvement in function, and reduction of amount of sick leave.
in func tion.123 Ultrasound and pulsed electromagnetic fi eld Intra-muscular injection of lidocaine could be an eff ective ther apy are possible treatments for shoulder pain, adhesive treatment for some patients with chronic neck pain.117,118 capsulitis, or rotator cuff tendonitis but their benefi ts are Epidural injection of methylprednisolone with lidocaine unproven.
might be helpful for reduction of sick leave after 6 and If one intervention has not been benefi cial, multi- 12 months for patients with chronic neck pain with disciplinary programmes are a sensible treatment option radicular fi ndings. For patients with cervicobrachial pain, for workers with shoulder pain.124 The content of these radiofrequency denervation might provide short-term pain programmes can vary, and also the disciplines involved: relief.119 Other commonly used treatment options for neck physicians, physical and occupational therapists, and pain are a collar, NSAIDs, psychotropic medication, psychologists might all have a role. Whether psychologists electrotherapy, and transcutaneous electrical nerve should provide behavioural treatment or merely advise the stimulation. Whether these interventions are eff ective or rehabilitation team has not been well established.125 Also, if not is still unclear.117,120 regular interventions have not been benefi cial, some patients with shoulder pain might want to try alternative Shoulder pain
Corticosteroid injections are commonly used for treatment treatments, such as acupuncture, has not been proven.126 of shoulder pain (table 5).121 Little evidence is available to Patients with resistant or longstanding shoulder pain are guide treatment as to the number, site, and dose of often referred for specialist treatment, such as surgery. injections. Subacromial corticosteroid injection for rotator Arthroscopic decompression is probably bene cuff disease and intra-articular injection for adhesive rotator cuff ,8 although a randomised trial did not fi nd a
capsulitis could be benefi cial although their eff ect might diff erence compared with conservative treatment.127 None
be small and not well-maintained.121 Steroid injection of these studies exclusively included a working population.
might somewhat speed up return-to-work, as seen at
12 months follow-up in one study.122 Physiotherapeutic Conclusion
interventions are also widely used for treatment of shoulder
No consensus exists on use of the term repetitive strain pain. Exer cises, either alone or combined with mobilisation, injury (or any other term), and little is known about the pro vide short-term recovery and long-term improvement pathophysiology of this disorder. Evidence about risk factors www.thelancet.com Vol 369 May 26, 2007
is increasing but the relative eff ects of such risk factors are Ashworth N. Carpal tunnel syndrome. Clin Evid 2005; 14: 1351–65.
not well understood, and commonly used diagnostic tests 6 Assendelft W, Green S, Buchbinder R, Struijs P, Smidt N. Tennis for specifi c strain injuries have no empirical support. Yet, elbow. Clin Evid 2004; 11: 1633–44.
Binder A. Neck pain. Clin Evid 2005; 13: 1501–24.
repetitive strain injuries occur frequently, especially in 8 Speed C. Shoulder pain. Clin Evid 2005; 14: 1543–60.
workers, and many people with specifi c or non-specifi c Bot SDM, van der Waal JM, Terwee CB, et al. Incidence and symptoms will seek advice from a clinician.
prevalence of neck and upper extremity complaints in general Many treatment options exist and are commonly used in practice. Ann Rheum Dis 2005; 64: 118–23.
10 Health Council of the Netherlands: RSI. The Hague: Health Council daily practice for patients with specifi c and non-specifi c of the Netherlands, 2000: publication 2000/22. strain injuries, such as rest, medication, exercise therapy, 11 Tjepkema M. Repetitive strain injury. Health Rep 2003; 14: 11–30.
physical therapy, behavioural therapy, occupational therapy,
12 Palmer KT. Pain in the forearm, wrist and hand. ergonomic intervention, or combinations of treatments. Best Pract Res Clin Rheum 2003; 17: 113–35.
13 Macfarlane GJ, Hunt IM, Silman A. Role of mechanical and Some interventions for repetitive strain might be eff ective psychosocial factors in the onset of forearm pain: prospective for pain relief, but positive fi ndings on function and population based study. BMJ 2000; 321: 676–79.
return-to-work or reduction of amount of sick leave taken 14 Chen Y, Turner S, McNamee R, Ramsay CN, Agius RM. The reported incidence of work-related ill-health in Scotland are scarce and eff ect sizes, if any, are only small. Some (2002–2003). Occup Med 2005; 55: 252–61.
studies assessed the natural course of repetitive strain 15 Cole DC, Ibrahim S, Shannon HS. Predictors of work-related injuries and showed that some patients improve without repetitive strain injuries in a population cohort. Am J Public Health treatment.128,129 However, none of these studies had 2005; 95: 123337.
16 Descatha A, Leclerc A, Chastang JF, Roquelaure Y. Medial ciently long follow-up. Eff ect sizes of treatment might epicondylitis in occupational settings: prevalence, incidence and be increased if subgroups of patients who would improve associated risk factors. J Occup Environm Med 2003; 45: 993–1001.
without treatment could be identifi ed, and treatment could 17 Descatha A, Leclerc A, Chastang JF, Roquelaure Y. Incidence of ulnar nerve entrapment at the elbow in repetitive work. be reserved for subgroups of patients with poor prognosis.
Scand J Work Environ Health 2004; 30: 234–40.
No useful evidence-based recommendations can be 18 Forde MS, Punnett L, Wegman DH. Prevalence of musculoskeletal provided for the treatment of De Quervain’s tenosynovitis, disorders in union ironworkers. J Occup Environ Hyg 2005; 2:
203–12.
Guyon canal syndrome, peritendonitis, or tenosynovitis 19 Lacerda EM, Nacul LC, Augusto LG, Olinto MT, Rocha DC, of the wrist and radial tunnel syndrome, because data Wanderley DC. Prevalence and associations of symptoms of upper from randomised trials assessing the eff ectiveness of extremities, repetitive strain injuries (RSI) and ’RSI-like condition’. A cross sectional study of bank workers in Northeast Brazil. interventions for these disorders are not available.
BMC Public Health 2005; 5: 107.
Randomised trials that exclusively included people with 20 Lassen CF, Mikkelsen S, Kryger AI, et al. Elbow and wrist/hand occupational repetitive strain injury are scarce and not all symptoms among 6 943 computer operators: a 1-year follow-up study completed trials included work-related outcomes. Not (the NUDATA study). Am J Ind Med 2004; 46: 521–33.
21 Leclerc A, Chastang JF, Niedhammer I, Landre MF, Roquelaure Y. much is known about the eff ectiveness of interventions for Incidence of shoulder pain in repetitive work. Occup Environ Med specifi c and non-specifi c repetitive strain injuries in a 2004; 61: 39–44.
working population, and especially little is known about 22 Lee HY, Yeh WY, Chen CW, Wang JD. Prevalence and psychosocial risk factors of upper extremity musculoskeletal pain in industries of Taiwan: a nationwide study. J Occup Health 2005; 47: 311–18.
Strong recommendations for any therapeutic inter- 23 Miranda H, Viikari-Juntura E, Heistaro S, Heliovaara M, vention cannot be made at present because many trials Riihimaki H. A population study on diff erences in the determinants of a specifi c shoulder disorder versus non-specifi c shoulder pain have small sample sizes and methodological fl aws that without clinical fi ndings. Am J Epidemiology 2005; 161: 847–55.
could have led to biased results. High-quality trials for 24 Mondelli M, Giannini F, Ballerini M, Hinanneschi F, Martorelli E. therapeutic interventions for specifi c and non-specifi c Incidence of ulnar neuropathy at the elbow in the province of Siena (Italy). J Neurol Sci 2005; 234: 5–10.
25 Picavet HS, Schouten JS. Musculoskeletal pain in the Netherlands: adequate follow-up. Future trials should also include an prevalences, consequences and risk groups, the DMC(3)-study. Pain assesment of cost-eff ectiveness. This disorder will remain 2003; 102: 167–78.
controversial until high-quality trials provide clear 26 Punnett L, Gold J, Katz JN, Gore R, Wegman DH. Ergonomic stressors and upper extremity musculoskeletal disorders in defi nition of repetitive strain injury and evidence of automobile manufacturing: a one year follow up study. Occup Environ Med 2004; 61: 668–74.
27 Roquelaure Y, Mariel J, Fanello S, et al. Active epidemiological Confl ict of interest statement
surveillance of musculoskeletal disorders in a shoe factory. We declare that we have no confl ict of interest Occup Environ Med 2002; 59: 452–58.
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